Timbuktu Institute – July 2026

After a decade of progressive disengagement, the United States is beginning a tentative return to the Sahel. This return no longer follows Washington’s strategy of the Obama-Biden years, which provided humanitarian aid and still promoted “democratic values.” Under the Trump presidency, this is a more transactional diplomatic actor, driven by unprecedented domestic pressures, now negotiating directly with Sahelian stakeholders it seemed to snub just two years ago. Apart from the lightning intervention in Nigeria and visits that have become more frequent in the region in recent months, the latest signal came from a Washington Postreport on July 22, 2026, according to which the Trump administration is already considering direct military action in Mali among the possible options. The two contexts are quite different, given that the Nigeria intervention was, at least in its stated justification, driven by a religious dimension. For Mali, other reasons would necessarily have to be invoked, despite the pragmatic approach that is fueling debate both within the US Administration and among regional experts.

A Withdrawal Followed by a Strategic Vacuum

Since 9/11, American engagement in the Sahel has taken two forms: a counterterrorism presence that always remained minor compared to its scale in the Middle East, and humanitarian soft power carried out by various structures such as the Peace Corps, USAID, and NGO funding in health, education and food security, as well as the prevention of violent extremism. But this dual engagement collapsed almost simultaneously following the latest decisive developments in the region. There was a military withdrawal from strategic bases, including drone bases in Niger, closed in 2024 after the coup, and the closure of USAID programs, the US Agency for International Development. This dynamic, compounded by the effects of France’s withdrawal and signs of Europe’s waning interest – preoccupied with Ukraine – de facto precipitated a vacuum that Russia lost no time filling, through the Wagner Group, rebranded Africa Corps, now present in Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger.

The result of this combination of facts, according to General Dagvin Anderson, head of AFRICOM, in a Senate hearing, was that a reduction in the Command’s regional posture turned the Sahel into what he himself called an “intelligence black hole.” Meanwhile, Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimin (JNIM), Al-Qaeda’s Sahelian branch, has reached its highest operational capacity since its creation, to the point of claiming, alongside Tuareg separatists, the assassination of Malian Defense Minister Sadio Camara in late April 2026 as part of an alliance that is redrawing the lines of the conflict in Mali.

Diplomatic Doctrine or Religious Lobbying: What Is Driving Washington’s “Return”?

Since 2020, legislative texts and Congressional hearings devoted to the Sahel point to the same conclusion: the American return could not be driven by a single, coordinated doctrine, but rather by the convergence of several lobbies with distinct interests — security, economic, and even ideological.

The case of Nigeria perfectly illustrates this new mindset in American diplomacy under Trump. After a hearing before the House of Representatives in the first quarter of 2025, where Nina Shea of the Hudson Institute and Tony Perkins of the Family Research Council testified, President Trump insisted on putting Nigeria back, in October 2025, on the list of “Countries of Particular Concern” for religious freedom, denouncing a persecution of Christians that he called an “existential threat.” The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom welcomed the decision at the time, and a resolution calling for sanctions soon followed in the House.

The affair then took a dramatic turn: Trump threatened to intervene militarily “guns-a-blazing,” before finally ordering, on Christmas Day 2025, drone strikesagainst Islamic State positions in Sokoto State.

As already analyzed at the time, researchers from the Timbuktu Institute noted in an article titled Religion, Rockets and Troops: The Trump Administration’s Push Against Jihadists in Nigeria: “In early December, a delegation of members of the US Congress traveled to Abuja as part of a fact-finding mission, during which it gathered testimony from government officials, victims of violence, as well as leaders and religious organizations (…) in the Middle Belt region. The military strikes were carried out a few weeks after this visit. Despite this new military cooperation between the United States and Nigeria, a bill was introduced in the US Congress in February 2026, threatening visa bans and asset freezes for Nigerians specifically accused of violations of religious freedom.”

Recall that these strikes had been coordinated with Abuja, as confirmed by Nigerian Foreign Minister Yusuf Tuggar after two calls with Marco Rubio. The Washington Post, in a December 27 editorial, even praised these “justified strikes,” judging that the president was “wise to stay engaged” in the region. Such praise was so rare from a newspaper whose editorial line is often critical of the Trump Administration that it drew the attention of many observers of the American political-diplomatic scene. But this religious reading of the Nigerian conflict by certain pressure groups remains contested: several analysts point out and document that jihadist groups strike both Muslims and Christians.

A Realpolitik of “Intelligence for Minerals”?

Taking into account the complexity of this shift in American diplomacy, it would appear that the religious lobby is, in the end, only one of many drivers of this policy. On the security front, the Trump administration had, since 2025, renewed ties with the military powers of the Alliance of Sahel States (Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger), which it had nonetheless watched gradually shift toward Moscow. Such an approach is described by certain specialized media outlets such as Geopolitical Futures as a pragmatic trade-off: exchanging counterterrorism intelligence for access to the region’s strategic minerals. Washington has even gone so far as to soften, in its official talking points, its opposition to the sovereigntist rhetoric of the military regimes ; which points to a clear break with yesterday’s normative stance emphasizing democratic governance criteria. On the economic front, finally, Congress is exploring infrastructure projects with a security dimension, such as the transatlantic submarine cable linking the United States, the Virgin Islands, Ghana and Nigeria (H.R.1737), passed in the House with rare bipartisan supportespecially when it comes to African issues.

Mali: From Intelligence Realpolitik to the Military Option?

This pragmatic trade-off logic — offering intelligence-sharing in exchange for strategic access — already appears to be shifting toward a more direct positioning on the Sahelian chessboard. The Washington Post revealed on July 22, 2026, based on several current and former official sources, that the Trump administration is actively assessing military action in Mali against JNIM.

If such an operation were to be approved, it would make Mali the eighth country where Trump has ordered strikes since the start of his second term. The whole question will be how the American Administration would justify such a choice, which would run counter to its initial promises to disengage from foreign conflicts.

The case above all reveals an Administration divided on such a crucial issue. Sebastian Gorka, senior director of the National Security Council for counterterrorism, is reportedly openly pushing for the military option, while other officials are said to be arguing for more caution. Experts consulted by the Postare skeptical about the effectiveness of a new armed intervention. Wassim Nasr, a Sahel specialist at the Soufan Center, believes that “opting once again for the military solution will solve nothing — the French tried it for ten years, the Russians for five, and the situation has only gotten worse.” Peter Pham, Trump’s former special envoy for the Sahel during his first term, argued for his part that trust with Bamako and Niamey would first need to be rebuilt before any security cooperation.

The immediate context fueling these debates remains quite sensitive: in early July 2026, JNIM set an ambush for a Malian military convoy between Gao and Anefis, killing or capturing at least 50 soldiers, including Russian fighters from Africa Corps, which replaced Wagner alongside the Bamako regime following Moscow’s official acknowledgment of its military engagement in Mali. Bamako claims, however, to have retaliated with airstrikes that killed 20 fighters. And according to data from the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) cited by the Post, the Malian army and its Russian partners killed nearly four times as many civilians last year (925) as Islamist groups combined (232). Such a confusing balance of power will significantly complicate the idea of an American security partnership with a military power already accused of abuses by human rights organizations.

A senior Administration official, speaking anonymously, summed up the emerging American doctrine: terrorism in the Sahel is a “multinational problem,” and Washington is now calling on “regional partners and NATO allies to support the Alliance of Sahel States in its war against JNIM and the Islamic State.” Such a stance, just months after American troops were expelled from Niger, marks, diplomatically, a certain decisive reversal. It remains to be seen how NATO partners will receive such a proposal, and to what extent Europe and its member states will respond to this “call,” which raises a number of diplomatic and strategic questions.

American Re-engagement: What Room for Maneuver Do Countries in the Region Have?

For Sahelian governments, this reshuffling opens a narrow but real window. Washington, which appears to be motivated by religious lobbies, critical mineral needs, and competition with Russia and, above all, China, would thus become a partner with real leverage, but one with whom every form of engagement will need to be negotiated down to the smallest detail. But warnings abound from various quarters, calling instead for a degree of caution. Where the National Interest judges Washington’s current actions toward re-engagement to be “welcome but insufficient” in the face of a JNIM in full regional expansion, several experts point out that a partnership built on accumulated mistrust since the post-coup sanctions would remain fragile, and that Washington cannot settle for a simple “quiet return” if it wants to carry weight now and over time against a Russia that is already firmly established.

But in reality, even without a visible presence, the Americans never fully severed ties with the region’s military high commands, which are constantly invited to the United States for various exchange programs and also take part in various exercises, training seminars and exchanges of best practices on counterterrorism strategies, among other things. Washington has remained in constant contact with the military leadership of the region’s various countries, despite diplomatic posturing and AES-ECOWAS tensions.

For governments in the region — and first and foremost the most directly concerned countries of the central Sahel — it would be strategically necessary to understand the ecosystem of pressure groups, defense industries, ad hoc bipartisan coalitions and other think tanks in Washington, in order to no longer be subject, without leverage, to this new reality of American diplomacy. Anticipating this potential dynamic of American re-engagement in the Sahel would be the best guarantee of putting it to work for their own development and security priorities, in the face of populations that have grown, over time, skeptical of security cooperation and increasingly hostile to foreign interventions.

 

Timbuktu Institute – Juillet 2026

Après une décennie de désengagement progressif, les États-Unis amorcent un timide retour au Sahel. Ce retour ne se fait plus à l’image de la stratégie de Washington des années Obama-Biden, pourvoyeur d'aide humanitaire et encore de promotion de « valeurs démocratiques ». Sous la présidence Donald Trump, il s’agit d’une Amérique, actrice diplomatique plus transactionnelle, poussée par des influences intérieures inédites, et qui négocieraient, désormais, directement, avec les parties prenantes sahéliennes qu'elle semblait snober il y a encore deux ans. A part l’intervention éclair au Nigeria et les visites devenues plus fréquentes ces derniers mois dans la région, il y a un dernier signal en date suite à une révélation du Washington Post, le 22 juillet 2026, selon laquelle l'administration Trump envisagerait déjà une action militaire directe au Mali parmi les options possibles. Les deux contextes sont bien différents si l’on sait que l’intervention au Nigeria était, du moins, dans sa justification, motivée par une dimension religieuse. Pour le Mali, d’autres raisons devraient nécessairement être évoquées malgré l’approche pragmatique qui suscite un certain débat aussi bien au sein de l’Administration américaine qu’entre les experts de la région.

Un retrait suivi d'un vide stratégique

Depuis le 11-Septembre, l'engagement américain au Sahel avait pris deux visages : une présence antiterroriste toujours restée mineure comparée à son ampleur au Moyen-Orient, et un soft power humanitaire porté par diverses structures telles que le Corps de la Paix, l'USAID et le financement d'ONG dans la santé, l'éducation et la sécurité alimentaire ou encore la prévention de l’extrémisme violent. Mais ce double engagement s'est effondré presque simultanément suite aux derniers développements décisifs dans la région. Il y a eu retrait militaire des bases stratégiques dont celles de drones du Niger, fermées en 2024 après le coup d'État et la fermeture des programmes de l'USAID, l’Agence des États-Unis pour le développement international. Cette dynamique, accentuée par les effets du retrait de la France et des signaux d’un désintérêt de l’Europe – préoccupée par l’Ukraine - a précipité, de facto, une situation de vide que la Russie a comblée sans attendre, à travers le groupe Wagner rebaptisé Africa Corps, désormais présent au Mali, au Burkina Faso, au Niger.

Le résultat d’une telle combinaison de faits, selon le général Dagvin Anderson, chef d'AFRICOM, dans une audition sénatoriale a été qu’une réduction de la posture régionale du Commandement a pu transformer le Sahel en ce qu'il a lui-même qualifié de « trou noir du renseignement ». Pendant ce temps, le Jama'at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimin (JNIM), la branche sahélienne d'Al-Qaïda, a atteint sa capacité opérationnelle la plus élevée depuis sa création au point de revendiquer, avec des séparatistes touaregs, l'assassinat du ministre malien de la Défense Sadio Camara fin avril 2026 dans le cadre d’une alliance qui redessine les cartes du conflit au Mali.

Doctrine diplomatique ou lobbying religieux : Qu’est-ce qui motive le « retour » de Washington ?

Depuis 2020, les textes législatifs et les auditions au Congrès consacrés au Sahel dessinent un même constat : le retour américain ne pourrait être piloté par une doctrine unifiée et coordonnée, mais par la convergence de plusieurs lobbys aux intérêts distincts sur les plans sécuritaire, économique, voire idéologique.

Le cas du Nigeria illustre parfaitement ce nouvel état d’esprit de la diplomatie américaine sous Trump. Après une audition à la Chambre des représentants au premier trimestre 2025, où témoignaient Nina Shea du Hudson Institute et Tony Perkins de Family Research Council, le président Trump a tenu à replacer le Nigeria, en octobre 2025, sur la liste des « pays particulièrement préoccupants » (Country of Particular Concern) au titre de la liberté religieuse, dénonçant une persécution des chrétiens qu'il a qualifiée de « menace existentielle ». La United States Commission on International Religious Freedom avait, alors, salué la décision, et, dans la foulée, une résolution demandant des sanctions a suivi à la Chambre.

L'affaire a ensuite pris une tournure spectaculaire : Trump a menacé d'intervenir militairement « guns-a-blazing », avant de finalement ordonner, le jour de Noël 2025, des frappes de drones contre des positions de l'État islamique dans l'État de Sokoto.

Comme l’analysaient, déjà à l’époque, les chercheurs du Timbuktu Institute dans un article intitulé Religion, Rockets and Troops : The Trump Administration's Push Against Jihadists in Nigeria : « Début décembre, une délégation de membres du Congrès américain s'est rendue à Abuja dans le cadre d'une mission d'établissement des faits, au cours de laquelle elle a recueilli les témoignages de responsables gouvernementaux, de victimes de violences, ainsi que de dirigeants et d'organisations religieuses (…) dans la région du Middle Belt. Les frappes militaires ont été menées quelques semaines après cette visite. Malgré cette nouvelle coopération militaire entre les États-Unis et le Nigeria, un projet de loi a été déposé au Congrès américain en février 2026, menaçant d'interdictions de visa et de gels d'avoirs des Nigérians spécifiquement accusés de violations de la liberté religieuse »

Rappelons que ces frappes avaient été coordonnées avec Abuja, comme l'a confirmé le ministre nigérian des Affaires étrangères Yusuf Tuggar après deux appels avec Marco Rubio. Le Washington Post, dans un éditorial du 27 décembre, avait même salué ces « frappes justifiées » en estimant que le président était « avisé de rester engagé » dans la région. Un tel satisfecit était tellement rare de la part d’un Journal à la ligne éditoriale, souvent, critique vis-à-vis de l'Administration Trump au point d’attirer l’attention de nombre d’observateurs de la scène politico-diplomatique américaine. Mais cette lecture confessionnelle du conflit nigérian de la part de certains groupes de pression reste contestée : plusieurs analystes rappellent et documentent que les groupes jihadistes frappent aussi bien les musulmans que les chrétiens.

Une realpolitik du « renseignement contre minerais » ?

En prenant en compte la complexité de ce shift de la diplomatie américaine, il paraitrait que le lobby religieux n'est, finalement, qu'un des nombreux ressorts de cette politique. Sur le plan sécuritaire, l'administration Trump avait renoué depuis 2025 avec les pouvoirs militaires de l'Alliance des États du Sahel (Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger) qu'elle avait pourtant vues basculer progressivement vers Moscou. Une telle démarche est décrite par certains médias spécialisés tels que Geopolitical Futures comme relevant d’un troc pragmatique : échanger du renseignement antiterroriste contre un accès aux minerais stratégiques de la région. Washington est même allé jusqu'à atténuer, dans ses éléments de langage officiels, l’opposition à la rhétorique souverainiste des régimes militaires ; ce qui augure d’une rupture nette avec la posture normative d'hier, mettant en avant les critères de gouvernance démocratique. Sur le plan économique enfin, le Congrès explore des projets d'infrastructure à connotation sécuritaire, comme le câble sous-marin transatlantique reliant les États-Unis, les Îles Vierges, le Ghana et le Nigeria (H.R.1737), adopté à la Chambre avec un rare soutien bipartisan surtout lorsqu’il s’agit des dossiers africains.

Mali : de la realpolitik du renseignement à l'option militaire ?

Cette logique de troc pragmatique proposant le partage de renseignement contre l’accès stratégique semble, déjà, en train de basculer vers un positionnement plus direct sur l’échiquier sahélien. Le Washington Post a révélé le 22 juillet 2026, sur la base de plusieurs sources officielles actuelles et antérieures, que l'administration Trump, évaluerait, activement une action militaire au Mali contre le JNIM.

Si une telle opération arrivait à être approuvée, elle ferait du Mali le huitième pays où Trump aura ordonné des frappes depuis le début de son second mandat. Tout l’enjeu sera de savoir comment l’Administration américaine justifierait un tel choix qui serait contraire aux promesses initiales de désengagement des conflits extérieurs.

Le dossier révèle surtout une Administration divisée sur une question aussi cruciale. Sebastian Gorka, directeur principal du Conseil de sécurité nationale pour le contre-terrorisme, pousserait ouvertement pour l'option militaire, tandis que d'autres responsables plaideraient pour plus de prudence. Les experts consultés par le Post sont sceptiques sur l'efficacité d'une nouvelle intervention armée. Wassim Nasr, spécialiste du Sahel au Soufan Center, juge qu'« opter encore pour la solution militaire ne réglera rien - les Français l'ont tenté pendant dix ans, les Russes depuis cinq ans, et la situation n'a fait qu'empirer ». Peter Pham, ancien envoyé spécial de Trump pour le Sahel, lors de son premier mandat, estimait, pour sa part, qu'il faudrait, d'abord, reconstruire la confiance avec Bamako et Niamey avant toute coopération sécuritaire.

Le contexte immédiat qui alimente ces débats reste assez sensible: début juillet 2026, le JNIM a tendu une embuscade à un convoi militaire malien entre Gao et Anefis, tuant ou capturant au moins 50 soldats, dont des combattants russes de l'Africa Corps qui a remplacé Wagner auprès du régime de Bamako suite à l’officialisation par Moscou de son engagement militaire au Mali. Bamako affirme, toutefois, avoir riposté par des frappes aériennes ayant tué 20 combattants. Et selon les données de l'Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) citées par le Post, l'armée malienne et ses partenaires russes ont tué l'an dernier près de quatre fois plus de civils (925) que les groupes islamistes combinés (232). Un tel rapport de force confus compliquera, singulièrement, l'idée d'un partenariat sécuritaire américain avec un pouvoir militaire déjà accusé d'exactions par les organisations de défense des droits humains.

Un responsable de l'Administration, cité anonymement, résume la doctrine américaine qui se dessine : le terrorisme au Sahel est un « problème multinational », et Washington appelle désormais « les partenaires régionaux et les alliés de l'OTAN à soutenir l'Alliance des États du Sahel dans sa guerre contre le JNIM et l'État islamique ». Une telle posture, quelques mois après l'expulsion des troupes américaines du Niger, acte, sur le plan diplomatique, un certain revirement décisif. Reste à voir comment les partenaires au sein de l’OTAN vont accueillir une telle proposition et dans quelle mesure, l’Europe et ses États-membres vont répondre à cet « appel » posant nombre d’équations diplomatiques et stratégiques.

Réengagement américain : Quelle marge de manœuvre pour les pays de la région ?

Pour les gouvernements sahéliens, cette recomposition ouvre une fenêtre étroite mais réelle. Washington qui semble motivé par des lobbys religieux, des besoins en minerais critiques et une compétition avec la Russie et, surtout, la Chine, deviendrait, ainsi, un partenaire disposant de vrais leviers mais avec lequel il va falloir négocier dans les moindres détails toute forme d’engagement. Mais les mises en garde abondent et fusent de divers horizons en appelant, plutôt, à une certaine prudence.  Là où le National Interest juge les actes actuels de Washington posés vers un réengagement « bienvenu mais insuffisant » face à un JNIM en pleine expansion régionale, plusieurs experts rappellent qu'un partenariat construit sur la méfiance accumulée depuis les sanctions post-coups, resterait fragile, et que Washington ne pourra pas se contenter d'un simple « quiet return » s'il veut peser dans l’immédiat et dans le temps face à une Russie déjà solidement implantée. 

Mais, en réalité, même sans une présence visible, les Américains n’ont jamais définitivement rompu d’avec les États-majors militaires de la région constamment invités aux États-Unis dans le cadre de différents programmes d’échanges mais aussi participant à différents exercices, séminaires de formation et d’échanges de bonnes pratiques sur les stratégies anti-terroristes, notamment. Washington est resté en permanence au contact du leadership militaire des différents pays de la région malgré les velléités diplomatiques et les dissensions AES-CEDEAO.

Pour les gouvernements de la région et, en premier les pays du Sahel central les plus concernés, il serait, stratégiquement nécessaire, de comprendre l’écosystème des groupes de pressions, des industries de défense, des coalitions bi-partisanes ponctuelles et autres think tanks à Washington, afin de ne plus subir, sans leviers, cette nouvelle donne de la diplomatie américaine. L’anticipation potentielle d’une telle dynamique de réengagement américain au Sahel serait la meilleure garantie de le mettre au service de leurs propres priorités de développement et de sécurité face à des populations devenues, au fil du temps sceptiques des coopérations sécuritaires et, de plus en plus hostiles, aux interventions étrangères.

 

 

Timbuktu Institute July 2026

It is one of the largest mining projects in the world, backed by investments of nearly $20 billion. Mining operations at the Simandou iron ore deposit in Guinea began last November. Promises of economic growth. But these promises must be accompanied by tangible benefits for local communities to avoid repeating the situation in Boké—a bauxite mining area where the lack of basic services is a recurring problem. This is one of the conclusions of a report recently published by the Timbuktu Institute in Dakar, titled *Beyond Simandou: Guinea, a Fragility with Many Faces*. To discuss this, the institute’s regional director, Bakary Sambe, is our guest. He answers questions from Magali Lagrange.

RFI: Mining of the Simandou iron ore deposit has begun. Can it help Guinea take off?

Bakary Sambe: Yes, the economic expectations surrounding this project are indeed considerable. Based on projections from the World Bank, Guinea is currently expected to experience some of the highest growth rates on the continent. The risk identified in this study is therefore not that Simandou will fail economically. The risk is that the project’s macroeconomic success will mask—as in Boké [a region in western Guinea with significant bauxite reserves, Ed.]—a fairly persistent local deprivation. It is this tension between macroeconomic promise and immediate local expectations that will be the true political test for Simandou in the coming years.

What is needed in this region to satisfy the local populations? What do they need?

The local populations need hospitals, schools, and infrastructure. What’s needed is the rapid and visible redistribution of wealth—which is no easy task. And what we see in the announced figures is that growth is expected. But on the other hand, there’s no mention of how this growth will be shared, or how this area will benefit—immediately and directly—from the economic benefits of Simandou and the resources it generates. In short, there is a whole range of demands for basic social services that Guinea sorely lacks, particularly in the vulnerable regions of Kankan and Nzérékoré, where the ore is certainly present, where the prospects are quite significant, but where the population is waiting for results.

You mentioned the example of Boké, which is a bauxite mining area. What is the assessment of the situation there, and what is the current state of affairs in that area?

In the report, we refer to Boké as a case study of the mining paradox. Boké alone holds nearly two-thirds of Guinea’s bauxite reserves, yet at the same time suffers from a glaring shortage of roads, water, electricity, and educational infrastructure—and the roads deteriorate with every rainy season. Outbursts of anger have been occurring there for nearly a decade, with recent riots demanding the restoration of water and electricity that left one person dead and about thirty injured. In December 2025, the teachers’ strike escalated, and I believe this is a sign that social discontent in Boké is now also turning toward local groups, beyond just the government or the mining companies.

What needs to be done to make the benefits more tangible and ensure that wealth is better redistributed? What has been missing so far?

What is missing—beyond the rhetoric of sovereignty about the state and Guineans taking control of their own wealth—is the ability to manage this multifaceted fragility, particularly in mining areas. It is worth noting that Simandou is located in areas that are among the most fragile in terms of ethnic tensions, and that today, if the Simandou project is not accompanied by a well-defined social policy capable of generating concrete benefits for the population in the medium term, then Simandou will not be able to eliminate Guinea’s structural vulnerabilities. The other recommendation is to recognize that this vulnerability in Guinea takes many forms. The situation varies depending on whether one is in Ratoma [near the capital, Conakry—Ed.], Dalaba [in the central-western part of the country—Ed.], Boké, or elsewhere. A differentiated approach to this structural fragility in Guinea is now needed in order to address the specific needs of all regions.

Another vulnerability you identify in the report is the political situation in Guinea. You note that, while there has certainly been a return to institutional normalcy following the elections at the end of the year, you believe that the situation remains fragile.

Yes, what we’re seeing in Guinea is a change in status rather than a change in the nature of power. The return to constitutional order has altered the legal status of Guinea and its government, without changing the actual practices. For example, the ban on demonstrations has been in effect since May 2022. We see that political parties and independent media have been suspended. And the most sensitive issue today, in my opinion, remains the disappearances and other phenomena we’re seeing in Guinea, which show that there is a shrinking of civic space that is not merely anecdotal. It deprives informal mediation mechanisms—such as the work of elders or religious leaders—of their ability to engage in dialogue with a state that has, until now, been perceived as one that curtails citizens’ freedoms and rights. Guinea, generally speaking, cannot be analyzed today solely through the lens of Simandou and all its economic promises. A policy of social inclusion is needed, and one of the most important issues in Guinea today is the question of social cohesion.

 

Title adapted by the Timbuktu Institute

Source: RFI

Timbuktu Institute Juillet 2026

C'est l'un des plus grands projets miniers au monde, porté par des investissements de près de 20 milliards de dollars. L'exploitation du gisement de fer de Simandou, en Guinée, a été lancée en novembre dernier. Des promesses de croissance économique. Mais qui doivent s'accompagner de retombées concrètes pour les populations, pour ne pas reproduire la situation de Boké. Zone d'exploitation de la bauxite où le manque de services de base se fait régulièrement sentir. C'est l'une des conclusions d'un rapport que vient de publier le Timbuktu Institute de Dakar, intitulé Au-delà de Simandou - La Guinée, une fragilité à plusieurs visages. Pour en parler, son directeur régional Bakary Sambe est notre invité. Il répond aux questions de Magali Lagrange.

RFI : L'exploitation du gisement de fer de Simandou est lancée. Est-ce qu'elle peut faire décoller la Guinée ?

Bakary Sambe : Oui, les attentes économiques autour de cette exploitation sont quand même considérables. On anticipe aujourd'hui, avec la Banque mondiale, une croissance guinéenne parmi les plus élevées du continent. Le risque qui a été identifié dans cette étude n'est donc pas que Simandou échoue économiquement. Le risque, c'est que la réussite macroéconomique du projet masque, comme à Boké [région de l'ouest de la Guinée qui concentre de fortes réserves de Bauxite, NDLR], un dénuement local assez persistant. C'est cette tension entre promesse macroéconomique et attente locale immédiate qui constitue le véritable test politique de Simandou dans les prochaines années.

Qu'est-ce qu'il faut dans cette région pour satisfaire les populations. De quoi ont-elles besoin ?

Les populations ont besoin d'hôpitaux, d'écoles, d'infrastructures. C'est la redistribution rapide et visible de la richesse, ce qui n'est pas évident. Et ce qu'on voit dans les chiffres annoncés, c'est qu’une croissance est attendue. Mais d’un autre côté, on ne dit pas la manière dont cette croissance sera partagée, comment cette zone-là va bénéficier, immédiatement et directement, des retombées de Simandou et des ressources qu’elle génère. Bref, il s'agit de tout un ensemble de demandes en termes de services sociaux de base dont la Guinée manque cruellement, notamment dans les régions fragiles de Kankan et de Nzérékoré, où le minerai est certes là, où les promesses sont quand même assez importantes, mais où les résultats sont attendus par la population.

Vous avez cité l'exemple de Boké, qui est une zone d'exploitation de bauxite. Quel bilan fait-on là-bas et quelle est la situation aujourd'hui dans cette zone ?

Dans le rapport, nous parlons de Boké comme le laboratoire du paradoxe minier. Boké détient à elle seule près des deux tiers des réserves de bauxite guinéennes, mais souffre en même temps d'un déficit criant en routes, en eau, en électricité, en infrastructures éducatives, et les routes se dégradent à chaque saison des pluies. Des explosions de colère s'y succèdent depuis près d'une décennie, avec récemment des émeutes pour le retour de l'eau et de l'électricité qui ont fait un mort et une trentaine de blessés. En décembre 2025, la grève des enseignants a dégénéré, et je crois que c'est le signe que la colère sociale à Boké se retourne désormais aussi vers des catégories locales, au-delà du seul État ou des compagnies minières.

Qu'est-ce qu'il faut faire pour que les retombées soient plus palpables et que les richesses soient mieux redistribuées ? Qu'est-ce qui manquait jusqu'ici ?

Ce qui manque - au-delà des discours de souverainisme sur une emprise annoncée de l'État et des Guinéens sur leur propre richesse - c’est de gérer cette fragilité plurielle, notamment dans des zones minières. Rappelons que Simandou se trouve dans les zones les plus fragiles en termes de velléités ethniques et qu’aujourd’hui, si le projet Simandou n'est pas accompagné d'une politique sociale définie qui puisse, à moyen terme, générer des retombées concrètes pour les populations, alors Simandou ne pourra pas effacer les fragilités structurelles de la Guinée. L'autre recommandation est de considérer que cette fragilité en Guinée a plusieurs visages. La situation n'est pas identique selon qu'on soit à Ratoma [près de la capitale, Conakry, NDLR], à Dalaba [dans le centre-ouest du pays, NDLR], à Boké, ou ailleurs. Il faut désormais une approche différenciée de cette fragilité structurelle en Guinée afin de répondre aux besoins spécifiques de toutes les régions.

Une autre fragilité que vous identifiez dans le rapport, c'est la situation politique en Guinée. Certes, dites-vous, il y a eu un retour à la normalité institutionnelle avec les élections de fin d'année. Mais vous estimez que tout cela reste encore fragile.

Oui, il y a en Guinée un changement de statut, plus qu'un changement de nature du pouvoir. Le retour à l’ordre constitutionnel a modifié le statut juridique de la Guinée, du pouvoir, sans transformer les pratiques. Par exemple, l'interdiction des manifestations est en vigueur depuis mai 2022. On voit que les partis politiques et les médias indépendants ont été suspendus. Et le point le plus sensible aujourd’hui, à mon avis, reste les disparitions et d’autres phénomènes qu'on voit en Guinée, qui montrent qu'il y a une fermeture de l'espace civique qui n'est pas seulement anecdotique. Elle prive les mécanismes informels de médiation, comme le travail des sages ou des leaders religieux, de leur capacité à dialoguer avec un État perçu, jusqu'à présent, comme étant un État qui réduit les libertés et les droits des citoyens. La Guinée, de manière générale, ne peut pas être aujourd'hui seulement analysée avec Simandou et toutes les promesses économiques. Il faut une politique d'inclusion sociale, et l'un des sujets les plus importants aujourd'hui en Guinée, c'est la question de la cohésion sociale.

 

Titre adapté par Timbuktu Institute 

Source : RFI 

 

Timbuktu Institute – Juillet 2026

 

Télécharger le rapport intégral

Quatre ans après l'arrivée au pouvoir du général Mamadi Doumbouya et un an à peine après l'achèvement, en décembre 2025, de la transition constitutionnelle, la Guinée se présente à la communauté internationale sous les traits rassurants d'un double retour à la normale : un pouvoir civil légitimé par les urnes et une économie portée par le lancement, en novembre 2025, de l'exploitation du gisement de fer de Simandou, l'un des plus grands projets miniers au monde. Cette étude du Timbuktu Institute menée au sein du Fragility Observatory for West & Central Africa for Resilience & Democracy – FOWARD et fondée sur une veille continue et différenciée à l'échelle infranationale, montre cependant que ni la normalisation politique ni le boom minier n'ont fait disparaître les fragilités structurelles du pays : ils les recomposent plutôt qu'ils ne les résolvent.

Une normalisation institutionnelle à consolider

Le référendum constitutionnel puis l'élection présidentielle de décembre 2025, suivis de la levée des sanctions de la CEDEAO, ont acté un retour formel à l'ordre constitutionnel. Mais ce changement de statut juridique du pouvoir ne s'est pas accompagné d'un changement de pratiques politiques : interdiction des manifestations maintenue, répression de certaines mobilisations, suspension de partis et de médias, disparitions de figures de l'opposition et de la société civile. L'impunité des dirigeants successifs et la défiance structurelle envers l'État en tant que causes profondes identifiées dès le début de la veille, demeurent intactes et continuent de priver les mécanismes informels de médiation (sages, leaders religieux, société civile) de leur capacité de dialogue avec l'État.

Trois Guinées, trois grammaires du conflit

La fragilité guinéenne ne se lit pas comme une carte homogène mais comme une mosaïque de dynamiques localisées : violences électorales et délinquance urbaine à Conakry (Ratoma, Matoto) ; fractures intra-religieuses et conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs en Moyenne-Guinée ; tensions ethno-politiques, criminalité aurifère et exposition au risque jihadiste transfrontalier en Haute-Guinée (Siguiri, Kankan) ; rivalités intercommunautaires explosives et vulnérabilité infrastructurelle en Guinée forestière (Nzérékoré, Macenta). Des causes structurelles communes telles que le chômage des jeunes, la corruption, l’instrumentalisation ethnique du politique, l’essor des économies illicites (drogue, faux médicaments, orpaillage clandestin), traversent tout le territoire, mais leurs déclinaisons locales diffèrent radicalement, tout comme les mécanismes et leviers de résilience mobilisés (justice coutumière en zone rurale, justice formelle en milieu urbain), ce qui limite l'efficacité de toute réponse uniquement sécuritaire ou nationale et non différenciée.

Simandou : une rente ancrée dans les zones les plus fragiles

Portée par un investissement d'environ 20 milliards de dollars, Simandou nourrit des prévisions de croissance parmi les plus élevées du continent et un fonds souverain destiné aux régions minières. Mais le massif se situe précisément à Nzérékoré et Kankan, parmi les zones les plus exposées aux conflits ethniques et communautaires du pays. Le précédent de Boké englobant deux tiers des réserves de bauxite guinéenne, mais routes dégradées avec des coupures d'eau et d'électricité récurrentes, des émeutes parfois meurtrières, illustre le risque que Simandou reproduise le même paradoxe entre abondance extractive et dénuement local si les retombées ne sont pas perçues rapidement et concrètement par les populations. Loin d'atténuer les fragilités, le boom minier risque ainsi de les déplacer et de les intensifier là où elles sont déjà les plus vives.

Un pays à la croisée des chemins : pour une résilience différenciée

La Guinée est loin d'avoir atteint un seuil de résilience durable. Les leviers classiques qu’elle détient tels que le dialogue interreligieux, l’alerte précoce décentralisée, le contrôle renforcé des frontières, l’inclusion économique des jeunes et des femmes, restent nécessaires, mais ils devront désormais composer avec un pouvoir, certes, consolidé par les urnes mais en quête de légitimité réelle, et avec une rente minière appelée à transformer en priorité les régions les plus fragiles du pays. L'étude plaide, ainsi, pour une approche résolument différenciée et localisée de la fragilité guinéenne, seule à même de restituer la diversité des grammaires conflictuelles régionales tout en articulant les causes structurelles transversales, afin que les politiques de prévention, de cohésion sociale et de partage des richesses minières gagnent en pertinence locale et échappent à une lecture homogène et trompeuse d'un pays stabilisé.

Timbuktu Institute – July 2026

By Mbassa Thioune, Analyst, Director of Research at the Timbuktu Institute

For more than a decade, the states of the Central Sahel have been facing large-scale terrorism, with extremist groups occupying parts of their territory. This terrorist expansion has, in fact, shifted its focus to Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger, all of which have experienced coups d’état. These countries are now led by military leaders who have made the fight against terrorism and the recapture of territory their top priority. This struggle has transformed the security approach, leading to a realignment of partnerships with foreign countries. Following the “failures” of Operations Serval and Barkhane, these countries—which share the Liptako-Gourma region—have turned their backs on ECOWAS and so-called Western nations, and have resolutely aligned themselves with new partners. This break with traditional allies reflects a desire to move away from old methods and make a fresh start alongside countries such as Russia, China, and Turkey. We are thus witnessing a decline in French influence, which is giving way to Wagner and then Africa Corps, brought in to reinforce the defense forces of Sahelian states that are struggling to cope with the terrorism plaguing the region. This represents a redefinition of strategies and positions, as well as a power struggle among major powers on Sahelian soil. Since the creation of the AES, victories have been achieved on the ground, including the recapture of certain strategic regions previously controlled by armed groups. However, the resurgence of attacks of unprecedented violence in the three countries, as well as the inability of Russian paramilitary forces and the joint force to defeat terrorism, highlight the challenges these states face. What conclusions can be drawn from the partnerships forged so far with foreign powers? How are these powers playing out their rivalries in Africa, and what are the short- and medium-term consequences? What challenges lie ahead?The Sahel is one of the most important theaters of competition among foreign powers. Indeed, due to its geographic location, its commercial growth, and its significant mineral resources, this geopolitical region is coveted by the world’s major powers, which rely on its natural resources to meet their energy and technology needs. Given this reality, this vast territory situated between the Maghreb, the coastal countries, and the rest of Africa continues to be the scene of international rivalries, with each country seeking to establish it as its strategic base. Thus, the Sahel region is the arena for significant diplomatic, economic, and military stakes, which have led to a reconfiguration of the international landscape. The security challenges facing these countries make the relationship between nations plagued by widespread terrorism and their international partners even more complex. A restructuring of partnerships is necessary following the rejection of traditional actors. Consequently, we are witnessing the rise of new powers and international competition for security and resources.

Decline of French Influence: Between Popular Protest and Geopolitical Realignment

The security situation in this region has attracted the interest of foreign powers, making it an area of particular geopolitical and geostrategic significance. These countries are projecting their rivalries into the region, and each is attempting to gain control of these territories, which are rich in large quantities of valuable natural resources. Gold from Mali and Burkina Faso, as well as uranium from Niger, are highly prized by Western nations, which are waging a war for control of these mines. France, a traditional partner of these countries, has supported them since the crisis began. Thus, from Operation Serval to Operation Barkhane, the French armed forces have supported the Sahel countries in the fight against terrorist groups, which has helped halt the advance of armed groups toward the capital, Bamako, and temporarily contain the advance of terrorist groups. These operations mobilized more than 5,000 French military personnel.

Amid both successes and failures, their presence on Sahelian soil is viewed differently by local populations. A study by the Timbuktu Institute on security cooperation in the Sahel documented local populations’ perceptions of the military presence of foreign partners in Africa. According to the study’s findings, these perceptions are generally mixed. In Niger, however, the data is alarming: 38% of those surveyed believe this presence is “very bad.” A civil society activist sees in this presence “a lack of transparency, mysteries, a lack of communication, and a worsening or exacerbation of local conflicts.” These numerous grievances could explain France’s withdrawal from the Sahel. While Paris appears to have lost interest in the region, many observers see this as a way to make a soft return with a new approach. According to researcher Bakary Sambe, “the main difficulty for France in the Sahel, compared to other partners, is that it must constantly manage both the immediate crisis and historical baggage at the same time.”

The Russian Gamble: Between Hopes for a Break with the Past and the Limits of a New Security Partnership

The AES countries have resolutely turned their backs on their traditional partners to forge a partnership with countries like Russia, which they view as an alternative model. According to the findings of this study, Russia ranks first among models of security cooperation, far ahead of France, which was once a preferred partner, especially in Niger. What could explain this lack of interest in France among the local populations? Is it due to the colonial past, the “failures” observed on the ground, or accusations of abuses committed against civilians? However, French authorities do not seem to acknowledge their “failure” in this large-scale intervention. According to the French president, they were right to get involved in Africa as part of the fight against terrorism. “If we hadn’t gotten involved with Operations Serval and then Barkhane, there would undoubtedly be no more Mali, no more Burkina Faso, and I’m not even sure Niger would still exist,” said Emmanuel Macron. In this context, France is withdrawing from the Sahel to make way for other partners, including Russia, a major power that continues to expand its influence in the region.

The Russian forces’ strategy is based on an effective deployment, with joint command with the host country.

According to an analysis by the Timbuktu Institute, this strategy rests on four pillars: protecting allied regimes, securing access to natural resources, developing sustainable partnerships in the infrastructure and energy sectors, and limiting the influence of Western powers, particularly France. Thus, it aims to address the needs of Sahelian countries plagued by terrorism by providing a reassuring military presence. From Wagner to the Africa Corps, the Russians have deployed alongside Sahelian states and helped bring about periods of calm, even if the threat has not been defeated. Russian forces have suffered several defeats on the ground, particularly in Mali, which has tarnished Russia’s reputation in Africa. Their withdrawal from Kidal, following the atrocities committed last April by the JNIM-FLA group, is proof of this. The human and material resources made available do not appear to be effective in light of the evolving security situation, which remains dire. The Russian myth has collapsed. The Russians have failed to protect the population or to secure the ruling military regime. Violence and attacks continue, as do abuses committed against the population. The incident involving Wagner Group forces, who were filmed burying bodies in a mass grave in Mali, is proof of this. This continues to raise questions about respect for human rights, which could jeopardize the success of the Russian mission in the Sahel. The change in partner has not ended the war. Should the nature of the partnership be reevaluated?

China’s Rise: A Strategy of Influence Based on Sovereignty and Pragmatism

For its part, China proposes a type of partnership based on non-interference in conflicts, though it does intervene, for example, to protect mining and transportation infrastructure, among other things. As the leading trading partner of African countries, Beijing presents itself as a disciplined partner that does not meddle in internal affairs, particularly those related to security. It is currently strengthening its foothold in Sahelian countries through a patient and practical strategy on the ground, combining investments and military cooperation with near-total discretion. This is how China is now able to position itself as an alternative to partners who have failed in their missions in the Sahel. The win-win partnership has always been China’s policy in Africa. This is why countries such as Burkina Faso have chosen China for the purchase of weapons and military vehicles. This strategy of supporting countries while allowing them a certain degree of independence and flexibility could prove successful, as the Chinese appear to be learning from the criticisms leveled against other competing partners. This approach is based on what these states want: to combat terrorism while preserving their sovereignty. China’s success in the Sahel states could thus be viewed as a threat, as it is poised to become the leader in the power struggle for influence among the major powers. Consequently, the Chinese are gaining ground in a highly competitive environment centered on control of resources. Alongside them, the Turks continue to expand their presence and influence through an approach very similar to Russia’s.

Turkey in the Sahel: Pragmatic Diplomacy in the Service of Growing Influence

Turkey, a Western country, sets itself apart from the practices of its European counterparts in Africa. It favors a discreet partnership that benefits all parties. It positions itself as a preferred partner for the purchase of drones intended for airstrikes and intelligence gathering. In this context, Turkey could very well come out on top. All of this can be summed up in this observation by Göktuğ Çalışkan, a foreign policy analyst at the Center for Crisis and Policy Studies in Ankara: “Ankara is a unique geopolitical actor: as a NATO member, it has access to NATO’s military capabilities, but it is also a diplomat that speaks the language of the Global South.” This approach could bear fruit in the long term, given the aspirations of Sahelian states that wish to be treated as equals. Furthermore, Erdogan also intends to position himself as a preferred trading partner, second only to China, which holds the top spot. It should be noted that Turkey has repeatedly provided material and financial support to Sahelian states in the fight against terrorism. It is also making slow but steady progress toward signing trade agreements with countries such as Niger, which have begun diversifying their partnerships. In this regard, we could expect, in the medium term, a possible “battle” over drone procurement between Beijing and Ankara, as well as other powers such as France, which has not yet had its final say. Tensions between Paris and Ankara could intensify given Turkey’s strong position in the Sahel, which was once a French stronghold. As a reminder, Macron accused Turkey in 2020 of fueling “anti-French sentiment.”

The U.S. Return: Toward a New Strategy of Influence in a Competitive Region

Two years ago, the United States completed the withdrawal of its troops from the Sahel, notably from its last military base in Agadez. This process, which had been underway for several years, saw the Pentagon gradually withdraw from the Sahel region. It is worth noting that the Nigerien authorities had denounced the terms of the agreement with Washington. Nevertheless, the United States was still willing to come to Niamey’s aid if necessary. Following U.S. airstrikes against Islamic State fighters, many observers were already anticipating a U.S. return to Africa, particularly to the Sahel. A new partnership between the United States and the Sahel appears to be taking shape; an American return to Sahelian soil cannot be ruled out. What will be the format and terms of reference for this agreement?

For now, nothing is official yet. But if we are to believe the statements of a senior official from the U.S. State Department’s Bureau of African Affairs, who was on a working visit to Ouagadougou last March, the idea of a new partnership is being widely discussed. This visit followed one to Bamako, where he met with officials to reestablish dialogue. According to Nick Cheke, “we discussed our desire to revitalize relations between the United States and Burkina Faso, and to work together on issues of shared interest.” The fight against terrorism will play a prominent role within this partnership. This time, it will be “with respect for the country’s sovereignty.” The new “U.S. Sahel Envoy” clearly signals the United States’ ambition to return to the Sahel, which it had previously left on tiptoe. With this return, the United States will find Russia, China, Turkey, and others already on the ground, and the battle promises to be fierce.

Germany in the Sahel: A Stabilization Approach Based on Assistance and Cooperation

The Sahel is also a priority of German foreign policy in the area of security. Indeed, Germany provides military support combined with humanitarian aid to mitigate the economic consequences of the conflict in this region. With France’s withdrawal, Germany is positioning itself as an option that could help stabilize the region without interfering in internal affairs.

Toward a New Geopolitical Order in the Sahel: Intensifying Rivalries and Strategic Resource Issues

With this rush of major powers toward the Sahel, a new order in the battle for influence is undoubtedly and inevitably taking shape. These powers are sharpening their weapons and adjusting their positions in light of geopolitical stakes. In the medium term, the specter of large-scale competition will persist. Behind this military partnership lies a desire to gain control of the mineral resources essential for technological and industrial advancement. These rivalries will intensify and risk dealing a severe blow to the fight against terrorism.

Recommendations

Based on this analysis, we can formulate six general recommendations for the countries of the Sahel and West Africa, structured around six strategic priorities:

Regain sovereign control over security partnerships

The countries of the Sahel have demonstrated that they can sever ties with partners who have become unpopular, but so far they have merely replaced one form of dependence with another. The lesson to be learned is that neither France, nor Russia, nor any external power can defeat terrorism on behalf of Sahelian states. We must therefore reverse the logic: first define national security needs in terms of training, equipment, intelligence, and an effective territorial presence, then select partners based on their ability to meet those needs—not on the basis of current political or ideological affinities. This entails deliberately diversifying partnerships rather than replacing one monopoly with another; ensuring that any cooperation agreement is enshrined in a transparent legal framework with performance and exit clauses; and requiring each partner to be held accountable for human rights violations committed by its forces on national soil.

Protecting strategic resources as a lever of sovereignty, not as a factor attracting rivalries

Mali’s gold, Niger’s uranium, and Burkina Faso’s resources are at the heart of competition among major powers. Today, these resources are more a source of foreign covetousness than a driver of national development. It is imperative that Sahelian states strengthen public control over their mineral resources by auditing existing contracts and renegotiating those that place mining operations under exclusive foreign control. Local processing of raw materials must be encouraged to create added value within the country. Mining revenues must be prioritized for the national armed forces, basic public services, and the development of marginalized areas that fuel recruitment by armed groups.

Rebuild the regional security architecture on realistic foundations

ECOWAS, the now-defunct G5 Sahel, and the AES have all shown their limitations. None of these frameworks has succeeded in producing an effective collective response to the terrorist threat. Rather than creating new, competing structures, efforts must be focused on a few concrete and financially viable mechanisms: a regional intelligence fusion center fed by all member states, rapid-response units pre-positioned at the most porous borders, and a protocol for the automatic activation of military solidarity with clear and binding thresholds. The political rift between the AES and ECOWAS must not prevent technical cooperation on border security, intelligence sharing, and the monitoring of the flow of weapons and fighters. Algeria and Mauritania, which have often remained on the sidelines, must be included in these mechanisms as key neighboring actors.

Address the root causes of terrorism rather than merely its symptoms

Ten years of foreign and domestic military presence have not eradicated terrorism in the Sahel, because no military measure alone can resolve a crisis whose roots are political, economic, and social. Armed groups recruit from communities abandoned by the state, economically marginalized, and exposed to injustices. A sustainable strategy must therefore address three dimensions simultaneously: reestablishing an effective state presence in areas recaptured by military means; investing heavily in the development of historically neglected border and pastoral regions; and initiating political dialogues tailored to the specific types of armed groups, distinguishing between transnational jihadists and movements with local grievances that can be disarmed through political solutions.

Building a Demanding and Balanced Relationship with External Powers

Rivalries among major powers in the Sahel are a lasting reality that African states cannot ignore, but they can capitalize on them rather than fall victim to them. The competition among Russia, China, Turkey, the United States, and Europe for influence in the region gives Sahelian governments real bargaining power, provided they exercise it collectively and strategically. This requires speaking with one voice within regional forums, demanding reciprocity in all agreements—particularly regarding the transfer of expertise, the training of national forces, and investment in local defense industries—and preventing the Sahel from becoming a battleground for external powers whose priorities may differ from the needs of the local populations. The non-interference advocated by China and Turkey can be an advantage, provided it does not serve as a pretext for the covert exploitation of resources without any real compensation for the host states.

Investing in Domestic Legitimacy as a Prerequisite for Any Security Strategy

Foreign military presence is viewed with mixed feelings, or even hostility, by local populations. But military regimes that have seized power in the name of the fight against terrorism will face the same lack of legitimacy if they fail to produce visible results for civilians. No external partnership, however well-equipped it may be, can compensate for the lack of trust between states and their populations. Legitimacy is built through transparency regarding military results and human costs, through the effective protection of civilians in areas of operation, through the fight against impunity for national and foreign security forces, and through the inclusion of local communities in the design of peace strategies. It is this domestic legitimacy, more than any external partnership, that will form the sustainable foundation for a resolution to the crisis in the Sahel.

 

 

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